Canine vocalizations during sleep, such as whimpering, represent a common phenomenon observed across various breeds and age groups. These sounds, often accompanied by twitching or paddling motions, can elicit concern from owners. The source of these noises may stem from a range of physiological and psychological factors.
Understanding the potential causes of these sleep-related vocalizations is beneficial for responsible pet ownership. It allows for informed decisions regarding the dog’s well-being and can facilitate early identification of potential health issues. Historically, these behaviors were often dismissed; however, advancements in veterinary science now offer more nuanced explanations.
The following sections will explore common reasons for these nocturnal sounds, differentiating between harmless instances and those requiring veterinary consultation. Specific attention will be given to the potential roles of dream activity, physical discomfort, and underlying medical conditions.
1. Dreaming
Dreaming, a recognized neurological process in canines, shares similarities with human sleep cycles. During the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage of sleep, brain activity increases, and dreaming is most likely to occur. A dog’s whimpering during sleep frequently coincides with this REM phase, suggesting a direct correlation between dream content and vocalization. The content of these dreams, while not directly observable, is presumed to involve activities and experiences from the dog’s waking life, such as playing, chasing, or interacting with familiar individuals.
The importance of dreaming as a component of sleep whimpering lies in its ability to provide insight into a dog’s cognitive and emotional processing. If a dog consistently whimpers or exhibits signs of distress during sleep, it could indicate the presence of underlying anxieties or unresolved experiences. For example, a rescue dog with a history of abuse might whimper due to nightmares reflecting past trauma. Observing the frequency and intensity of sleep vocalizations associated with dreaming can offer valuable clues for identifying potential psychological concerns.
Understanding the connection between dreaming and sleep whimpering allows owners to differentiate between normal, harmless sleep behaviors and potentially problematic ones. While occasional whimpering during REM sleep is typically benign, frequent or intense vocalizations warrant further investigation. Consulting with a veterinarian or a certified animal behaviorist is advisable to rule out underlying medical or psychological issues contributing to the dog’s distressed sleep patterns. Addressing these concerns can significantly improve the dog’s overall well-being and quality of life.
2. Pain
Pain, whether chronic or acute, represents a significant factor contributing to canine sleep disturbances, including whimpering. The discomfort associated with various physical ailments can manifest as vocalizations during sleep, a time when the dog’s conscious control over bodily responses diminishes. Conditions such as arthritis, hip dysplasia, dental disease, or recent surgical procedures can elicit whimpering as a direct response to nociceptive stimuli. The intensity of the vocalization often correlates with the severity and nature of the pain experienced.
Pain’s significance in understanding sleep whimpering stems from its potential impact on the dog’s quality of life. Persistent pain can disrupt sleep cycles, leading to fatigue, irritability, and decreased overall well-being. For example, a dog with osteoarthritis may find it difficult to get comfortable, resulting in frequent shifts in position and associated whimpering due to joint pain exacerbated by immobility during sleep. Similarly, a dog recovering from surgery may experience pain that intensifies as the effects of pain medication wear off, leading to nocturnal whimpering. Proper identification and management of the underlying pain source are paramount for alleviating these sleep disturbances.
Recognizing pain as a potential cause of sleep whimpering necessitates a thorough veterinary examination. Diagnostic procedures, such as radiographs or blood tests, may be required to identify the source of the discomfort. Once identified, appropriate pain management strategies, including medication, physical therapy, or surgical intervention, can be implemented. Addressing the underlying pain not only reduces sleep disturbances but also improves the dog’s overall comfort and quality of life. Failure to recognize and address pain as a contributor to sleep whimpering can result in prolonged suffering and a diminished quality of life for the animal.
3. Anxiety
Anxiety, a complex emotional state characterized by apprehension and unease, frequently manifests in canines, impacting their behavior both during waking hours and sleep. Sleep disturbances, including whimpering, can serve as indicators of underlying anxiety disorders. Identifying and addressing anxiety is crucial for improving a dog’s overall well-being and mitigating sleep-related issues.
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Separation Anxiety
Separation anxiety, triggered by the absence of attachment figures, can lead to heightened stress levels and subsequent sleep disturbances. A dog experiencing separation anxiety may whimper in its sleep due to the unresolved stress of being alone, even if the owner is merely in another room. This behavior can be exacerbated by previous experiences of abandonment or isolation. Real-life examples include dogs that whimper shortly after their owners leave for work or those that exhibit increased restlessness and vocalization during nighttime hours when left alone.
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder, characterized by persistent and excessive worry, can disrupt normal sleep patterns and lead to sleep whimpering. Dogs with this condition may exhibit anxiety-related behaviors, such as pacing, panting, or trembling, even in the absence of specific triggers. The chronic stress associated with generalized anxiety can interfere with the ability to achieve restful sleep, resulting in whimpering and other vocalizations. For example, a dog with a history of chronic noise aversion may exhibit generalized anxiety and whimper during sleep, even on nights without obvious noise triggers.
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Trauma and PTSD
Traumatic experiences, such as abuse, neglect, or accidents, can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in dogs, resulting in sleep disturbances, including whimpering and nightmares. The trauma can manifest in recurring dreams or flashbacks, causing the dog to whimper or cry out during sleep. For example, a rescue dog with a history of abuse may whimper due to reliving traumatic events in its dreams. The severity of the trauma and the dog’s coping mechanisms play a significant role in the intensity and frequency of these sleep-related manifestations.
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Environmental Anxiety
Environmental anxiety, triggered by specific stimuli in the dog’s environment, such as loud noises, thunderstorms, or unfamiliar people, can contribute to sleep disturbances and whimpering. The anticipation of or exposure to these stimuli can increase anxiety levels, disrupting normal sleep patterns. A dog that is fearful of thunderstorms, for example, might whimper in its sleep even on a clear night due to the underlying anxiety associated with the possibility of a storm. Modifying the environment and implementing desensitization techniques can help mitigate this form of anxiety and improve sleep quality.
The interplay between anxiety and canine sleep patterns underscores the importance of addressing underlying emotional and psychological well-being. Recognizing the specific type of anxiety affecting the dog allows for targeted interventions, such as behavioral modification techniques, medication, or environmental adjustments, to reduce anxiety levels and improve sleep quality. Addressing anxiety-related sleep disturbances, including “why does my dog whimper in his sleep,” is essential for promoting the dog’s overall health and well-being.
4. Medical condition
Certain medical conditions can manifest as nocturnal whimpering in canines. Internal diseases, neurological disorders, and other systemic illnesses may induce discomfort, pain, or neurological dysfunction, resulting in vocalizations during sleep. The presence of such conditions underscores the necessity of veterinary intervention to accurately diagnose and manage the underlying cause of the whimpering.
One example involves dogs suffering from cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS), a neurodegenerative disease analogous to Alzheimer’s disease in humans. CDS can disrupt normal sleep-wake cycles, leading to confusion, disorientation, and anxiety, all of which may manifest as whimpering during sleep. Another example is a dog with a urinary tract infection (UTI). The discomfort associated with a UTI can intensify during the night, leading to whimpering as the dog attempts to cope with the pain and urge to urinate. Additionally, conditions affecting the respiratory system, such as collapsing trachea, can cause breathing difficulties that are exacerbated during sleep, resulting in whimpering as the dog struggles to breathe comfortably. A veterinary examination, including appropriate diagnostic testing, is essential to determine if a medical condition is contributing to the observed sleep vocalizations.
Understanding the link between medical conditions and sleep whimpering is crucial for responsible pet ownership. Ignoring persistent or unexplained whimpering could result in delayed diagnosis and treatment of a potentially serious underlying illness. Early detection and appropriate management of medical conditions can significantly improve the dog’s quality of life and alleviate sleep disturbances. Therefore, any concerns regarding unusual sleep behaviors, particularly if accompanied by other signs of illness, should be promptly addressed by a qualified veterinarian.
5. Age
Age, a significant factor influencing canine physiology and behavior, plays a critical role in understanding the occurrence of sleep-related whimpering. The likelihood and underlying causes of these vocalizations can vary substantially between puppies, adult dogs, and senior canines, necessitating a nuanced approach to diagnosis and management.
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Puppyhood and Development
Puppies often exhibit whimpering during sleep due to ongoing neurological development and incomplete emotional regulation. They may be processing new experiences, adjusting to their environment, or experiencing separation anxiety from their littermates. These whimpers are often transient and decrease as the puppy matures and develops greater emotional stability. For example, a newly adopted puppy might whimper during its first few nights in a new home due to unfamiliar surroundings and separation from its mother. These early-life vocalizations typically resolve with time and socialization.
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Adult Dogs and Established Patterns
In adult dogs, sleep whimpering may indicate underlying medical or behavioral issues. While dreaming remains a potential cause, other factors such as chronic pain, anxiety disorders, or the onset of age-related conditions become more prevalent. Adult dogs that suddenly begin whimpering in their sleep warrant veterinary evaluation to rule out underlying health problems. For instance, an adult dog that has always slept quietly may begin whimpering due to developing arthritis or a previously undiagnosed dental issue. A change in sleep behavior in an adult dog often signifies an underlying problem requiring attention.
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Senior Dogs and Age-Related Decline
Senior dogs are particularly prone to sleep whimpering due to the increased prevalence of age-related conditions such as osteoarthritis, cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS), and decreased sensory perception. The discomfort associated with arthritis can worsen during sleep, leading to vocalizations. CDS can disrupt normal sleep cycles and cause confusion, resulting in nighttime whimpering. Additionally, decreased hearing or vision can increase anxiety and contribute to sleep disturbances. A senior dog with declining cognitive function may whimper due to disorientation or an inability to recognize its surroundings, even in a familiar environment.
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Impact on Sleep Quality Across Lifespans
Regardless of age, persistent sleep whimpering can negatively impact sleep quality, leading to fatigue, irritability, and reduced overall well-being. In puppies, disrupted sleep can hinder proper development. In adult dogs, it can exacerbate existing behavioral issues and reduce quality of life. In senior dogs, poor sleep can accelerate cognitive decline and worsen existing medical conditions. Addressing sleep-related whimpering is crucial for maintaining optimal health and well-being throughout a dog’s lifespan. Interventions should be tailored to the dog’s age and underlying cause of the vocalizations.
The connection between age and sleep whimpering in dogs highlights the importance of considering a dog’s life stage when assessing and addressing these behaviors. While whimpering may be a normal developmental phase for puppies, it often indicates an underlying medical or behavioral issue in adult and senior dogs. Recognizing these age-related differences enables owners and veterinarians to provide appropriate care and improve the dog’s overall quality of life. Understanding the complexities surrounding “why does my dog whimper in his sleep” requires a comprehensive assessment that includes age as a critical factor.
6. Breed
Breed-specific predispositions can influence the likelihood and underlying causes of sleep vocalizations in canines. Genetic factors contribute to variations in pain sensitivity, anxiety levels, and the prevalence of certain medical conditions, all of which can manifest as whimpering during sleep. Therefore, a dog’s breed is a relevant consideration when evaluating the potential reasons for these nocturnal sounds.
For example, smaller breeds, such as Chihuahuas and Yorkshire Terriers, exhibit a higher prevalence of tracheal collapse, a condition that can cause breathing difficulties exacerbated during sleep, leading to whimpering. Similarly, certain breeds, like German Shepherds and Labrador Retrievers, are genetically predisposed to hip dysplasia and osteoarthritis, chronic conditions causing pain that may intensify during periods of inactivity, resulting in sleep-related vocalizations. Furthermore, breeds known for their sensitivity or anxiety, such as Border Collies and Cocker Spaniels, might be more prone to whimpering due to underlying anxiety disorders that disrupt sleep patterns. These breed-specific tendencies do not guarantee the occurrence of sleep whimpering but rather indicate an increased risk that should be considered during assessment.
Understanding the breed-specific predispositions associated with sleep whimpering allows for more targeted diagnostic and management strategies. Veterinarians and owners can use this knowledge to anticipate potential health issues and implement preventative measures or early interventions. While breed alone does not determine the cause of sleep vocalizations, it serves as a valuable piece of information in a comprehensive evaluation, contributing to a more accurate diagnosis and effective treatment plan. Recognizing these breed-related tendencies enhances the ability to address the question of why a particular dog whimpers in its sleep.
7. Temperature
Environmental temperature is a relevant factor influencing canine sleep patterns and potentially contributing to nocturnal whimpering. Dogs, like other mammals, maintain a core body temperature within a narrow range, and deviations from this range can induce physiological responses, including vocalizations.
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Hypothermia and Shivering
Exposure to excessively cold temperatures can lead to hypothermia, characterized by a decrease in core body temperature. Shivering, a physiological response to generate heat, can be accompanied by whimpering due to discomfort and the body’s attempt to regulate its temperature. A small dog left outside in freezing temperatures without adequate shelter might exhibit shivering and whimpering during sleep as its body struggles to maintain warmth. Similarly, a dog with a thin coat sleeping on a cold floor may experience mild hypothermia and vocalize as a result.
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Hyperthermia and Discomfort
Conversely, excessively warm temperatures can cause hyperthermia, an elevation in core body temperature. While panting is the primary mechanism for cooling, dogs may also exhibit restlessness, agitation, and whimpering due to the discomfort associated with overheating. A dog confined to a poorly ventilated room on a hot day may experience hyperthermia and whimper during sleep due to the inability to cool down effectively. Brachycephalic breeds, with their compromised respiratory systems, are particularly susceptible to hyperthermia and associated sleep disturbances.
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Thermoregulatory Stress in Puppies and Seniors
Puppies and senior dogs are more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations due to immature or declining thermoregulatory abilities, respectively. Puppies have a limited capacity to regulate their body temperature, making them susceptible to both hypothermia and hyperthermia. Senior dogs may have reduced metabolic rates and decreased muscle mass, impairing their ability to generate heat. A puppy sleeping in a drafty area or a senior dog sleeping in a cold room are at increased risk of experiencing temperature-related discomfort and associated sleep whimpering.
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Influence on Underlying Conditions
Temperature can exacerbate underlying medical conditions, indirectly contributing to sleep whimpering. For example, cold temperatures can worsen joint pain in dogs with arthritis, leading to increased discomfort and vocalizations during sleep. Similarly, hot temperatures can exacerbate respiratory issues in dogs with collapsing trachea or other respiratory ailments, resulting in difficulty breathing and associated whimpering. Maintaining a comfortable ambient temperature can help mitigate these effects and improve sleep quality.
The interplay between environmental temperature and canine sleep behavior underscores the importance of providing a thermally comfortable sleeping environment. Maintaining an appropriate ambient temperature, providing adequate bedding, and addressing any underlying medical conditions can help minimize temperature-related discomfort and reduce the likelihood of sleep whimpering. The impact of temperature on “why does my dog whimper in his sleep” highlights the importance of considering environmental factors in a comprehensive assessment.
8. Environment
The environment in which a dog sleeps exerts a significant influence on its sleep quality and can contribute to nocturnal whimpering. Various environmental factors, ranging from noise levels to the presence of other animals, can affect a dog’s comfort and sense of security, leading to vocalizations during sleep.
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Noise Levels
Excessive noise, whether from external sources such as traffic or internal sources such as household appliances, can disrupt a dog’s sleep cycle and induce stress, resulting in whimpering. Dogs possess sensitive hearing, making them particularly susceptible to disturbances caused by loud or sudden noises. A dog residing in a busy urban area may whimper during sleep due to the constant barrage of traffic sounds. Similarly, a dog exposed to loud music or television may experience disrupted sleep and vocalize as a consequence.
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Presence of Other Animals
The presence of other animals, particularly other dogs or cats, can impact a dog’s sleep environment and contribute to whimpering. Competition for resources, territorial disputes, or social anxiety can disrupt sleep and lead to vocalizations. A dog sharing a sleeping space with another dominant dog may whimper due to feelings of insecurity or fear. Similarly, the presence of a cat that engages in nocturnal activity can disturb a dog’s sleep and trigger whimpering.
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Bedding and Comfort
The comfort and suitability of a dog’s bedding significantly influence its sleep quality and can contribute to whimpering. Inadequate bedding, such as a thin blanket on a hard floor, can cause discomfort and pressure sores, leading to vocalizations. Conversely, excessively warm or restrictive bedding can induce overheating and restlessness, also resulting in whimpering. A dog with arthritis may whimper if its bedding does not provide adequate support and cushioning for its joints.
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Light Levels
Exposure to excessive light during sleep can disrupt a dog’s circadian rhythm and contribute to sleep disturbances, including whimpering. Light inhibits the production of melatonin, a hormone that promotes sleep. A dog sleeping in a room with bright streetlights or electronic devices emitting blue light may experience disrupted sleep patterns and vocalize as a result. Providing a dark, quiet sleeping environment can help promote restful sleep and reduce the likelihood of whimpering.
These environmental factors underscore the importance of creating a safe, comfortable, and predictable sleep environment for dogs. Minimizing noise and light exposure, providing adequate bedding, and addressing potential social stressors can significantly improve sleep quality and reduce the likelihood of nocturnal whimpering. Understanding the influence of the environment is crucial for addressing “why does my dog whimper in his sleep” and ensuring the animal’s well-being.
9. Submissive Behavior
Submissive behavior, a complex set of actions and vocalizations displayed by canines to appease or avoid confrontation, can manifest during sleep and contribute to whimpering. While seemingly paradoxical, the display of submissive signals in a vulnerable state suggests underlying anxieties or learned responses that warrant careful consideration.
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Learned Associations and Sleep Environment
Submissive whimpering during sleep can arise from learned associations between specific sleep environments and previous experiences of perceived threat or dominance. A dog that has consistently been reprimanded or punished in a particular sleeping area may exhibit submissive vocalizations even when no actual threat is present. The sleep environment acts as a conditioned stimulus, triggering the learned submissive response. For example, a rescue dog previously confined to a crate as punishment may whimper submissively when placed in a similar crate for sleep, even if the current situation is non-threatening. This behavior stems from a deeply ingrained association between the crate and negative experiences.
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Early Socialization and Pack Dynamics
Inadequate early socialization or experiences within unstable pack dynamics can contribute to the development of submissive behaviors that extend into sleep. Dogs that have been consistently exposed to dominant or aggressive conspecifics may develop a heightened sensitivity to perceived threats, leading to submissive vocalizations even during sleep. The lack of secure social interactions during critical developmental periods can result in persistent anxiety and a tendency to exhibit submissive signals even in the absence of direct stimuli. A dog raised in a multi-dog household with constant competition for resources may whimper submissively in its sleep due to a deeply ingrained fear of conflict.
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Anxiety Disorders and Heightened Sensitivity
Underlying anxiety disorders can significantly amplify submissive behaviors, causing them to manifest even during sleep. Dogs with generalized anxiety or separation anxiety may exhibit heightened vigilance and a reduced threshold for triggering submissive responses. The heightened state of anxiety disrupts normal sleep patterns and increases the likelihood of submissive vocalizations, such as whimpering, as a means of appeasing perceived threats. A dog with separation anxiety may whimper submissively in its sleep even when its owner is present, stemming from the constant underlying fear of abandonment.
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Neurological Factors and Sleep Stage
Neurological processes occurring during specific sleep stages, particularly REM sleep, can influence the expression of submissive behaviors. During REM sleep, the brain exhibits increased activity, and dogs are more likely to experience dreams. If a dog dreams of a threatening or dominant figure, it may instinctively exhibit submissive vocalizations, such as whimpering, as a response to the perceived threat. The absence of conscious control during REM sleep allows for the uninhibited expression of ingrained behavioral patterns, including submissive responses. The dream state provides a context in which deeply rooted fears and anxieties can manifest as vocalizations, contributing to the occurrence of whimpering during sleep.
The presence of submissive whimpering during sleep indicates underlying anxieties, learned associations, or social insecurities that require careful evaluation. While occasional submissive vocalizations may be a normal variation in behavior, persistent or frequent whimpering warrants veterinary or behavioral consultation to identify and address the root cause. Understanding the link between submissive behavior and sleep patterns provides valuable insight into the emotional well-being of the canine subject and informs appropriate interventions to promote a more secure and restful sleep.
Frequently Asked Questions
The following questions and answers address common inquiries regarding canine sleep whimpering, providing factual information based on current veterinary knowledge.
Question 1: Is all canine sleep whimpering indicative of a problem?
No. Occasional whimpering during sleep is often associated with dream activity and is considered normal. However, frequent or intense vocalizations warrant further investigation.
Question 2: What are the most common causes of canine sleep whimpering?
The most frequent causes include dream activity, pain, anxiety, and age-related cognitive decline. Environmental factors and breed predispositions can also play a role.
Question 3: How can one differentiate between normal dream-related whimpering and whimpering caused by pain?
Dream-related whimpering is typically sporadic and accompanied by twitching or paddling movements. Pain-related whimpering is often more persistent, may be associated with restlessness or difficulty finding a comfortable position, and may occur in conjunction with other signs of discomfort such as limping during waking hours.
Question 4: When should a veterinarian be consulted regarding canine sleep whimpering?
A veterinarian should be consulted if the whimpering is frequent, intense, or accompanied by other signs of illness such as loss of appetite, lethargy, or changes in behavior. Also, any sudden onset of sleep whimpering in an adult dog should prompt veterinary attention.
Question 5: Can environmental factors contribute to canine sleep whimpering?
Yes. Temperature extremes, excessive noise, and an uncomfortable sleeping environment can all contribute to sleep disturbances and whimpering. Providing a comfortable and predictable sleep environment is crucial.
Question 6: Are certain breeds more prone to sleep whimpering than others?
Yes. Breeds predisposed to anxiety, joint problems, or respiratory issues may be more likely to exhibit sleep whimpering. However, any dog can experience sleep disturbances regardless of breed.
Accurate assessment of canine sleep whimpering requires careful observation and, if necessary, veterinary consultation. Understanding the potential causes allows for appropriate management and ensures the dog’s well-being.
The following section will discuss strategies for addressing canine sleep whimpering.
Addressing Canine Sleep Whimpering
The following recommendations offer strategies for managing canine sleep vocalizations, aiming to improve both the dog’s and the owner’s sleep quality. These guidelines are intended to supplement, not replace, professional veterinary advice.
Tip 1: Establish a Consistent Sleep Routine: Maintaining a predictable sleep schedule can regulate the dog’s circadian rhythm, reducing anxiety and promoting restful sleep. A consistent bedtime and wake-up time, even on weekends, helps stabilize the dog’s internal clock.
Tip 2: Create a Comfortable Sleep Environment: Provide a designated sleeping area that is quiet, dark, and appropriately temperature-controlled. The bedding should be supportive and comfortable, catering to the dog’s size and any physical limitations. Older dogs with arthritis may benefit from orthopedic beds.
Tip 3: Rule Out Medical Conditions: A thorough veterinary examination is crucial to identify and address any underlying medical issues contributing to the sleep whimpering. Pain management strategies, such as medication or physical therapy, may be necessary.
Tip 4: Address Anxiety and Stress: If anxiety is suspected, implement behavioral modification techniques, such as desensitization and counterconditioning. Consult with a certified veterinary behaviorist for guidance. Consider using pheromone diffusers or calming supplements under veterinary supervision.
Tip 5: Manage Environmental Stimuli: Minimize exposure to loud noises and bright lights during sleep. Use white noise machines or blackout curtains to create a more peaceful and conducive sleep environment. Address any potential stressors in the dog’s surroundings.
Tip 6: Regular Exercise and Mental Stimulation: Provide adequate physical exercise and mental enrichment during the day to promote sleepiness and reduce nighttime restlessness. A tired dog is more likely to sleep soundly.
Tip 7: Dietary Considerations: Ensure the dog receives a balanced diet appropriate for its age and activity level. Avoid feeding large meals close to bedtime, as this can disrupt sleep.
Implementing these strategies can significantly improve the dog’s sleep quality and reduce the frequency of nocturnal vocalizations. Success often depends on identifying the root cause of the whimpering and tailoring the interventions accordingly.
Addressing the underlying factors causing canine sleep vocalizations is crucial for ensuring the dog’s overall well-being. The subsequent section provides concluding remarks and reinforces the importance of responsible pet ownership.
Conclusion
The exploration of canine sleep whimpering reveals a complex interplay of physiological, psychological, and environmental factors. Dream activity, pain, anxiety, medical conditions, age, breed predispositions, temperature, environment, and submissive behavior all contribute to the manifestation of these nocturnal vocalizations. A thorough understanding of these influences is essential for discerning harmless sleep behaviors from indicators of underlying distress or illness.
Recognizing the potential causes of canine sleep whimpering allows for responsible pet ownership and informed decision-making. Prompt veterinary consultation and appropriate intervention are crucial for addressing underlying medical or behavioral concerns, promoting the animal’s well-being, and ensuring a peaceful and restful sleep. Continued advancements in veterinary medicine and behavioral science will further refine our understanding and management of these sleep-related phenomena.
