The consumption of regurgitated stomach contents by canines, an act often perceived as repulsive by humans, is a behavior rooted in both instinct and potential physiological need. This action involves a dog ingesting food that has been expelled from its stomach shortly after being eaten.
This behavior might stem from ancestral survival mechanisms where resources were scarce, and reclaiming partially digested food provided nutritional value. Additionally, a mother dog will sometimes regurgitate food for her puppies as a method of weaning, demonstrating a nurturing aspect to this practice. Understanding this behavior requires considering both its evolutionary roots and potential current motivations in domesticated animals.
Several factors can contribute to this action, including underlying medical conditions, dietary deficiencies, or simply learned habits. It is important to understand these potential reasons to address the behavior appropriately and ensure the canine’s well-being.
1. Instinctual scavenging
The act of consuming expelled stomach contents is deeply rooted in canines’ evolutionary history as scavengers. Wild canids often faced periods of food scarcity. Re-ingesting partially digested food provided a means of extracting additional nutrients and calories from limited resources. This innate drive to utilize any available sustenance remains present in domesticated dogs, even when food is readily available. The inherent programming to avoid starvation outweighs the potential repulsiveness of the material.
Consider a scenario where a dog quickly consumes its meal and then regurgitates a portion of it undigested. The instinctual scavenging behavior might immediately kick in, prompting the dog to re-consume the expelled food. This is because the dog’s system recognizes the undigested matter as a still-viable source of energy and nutrients. The smell and texture, even if offensive to humans, are irrelevant compared to the perceived benefit of obtaining sustenance. Another Example, a dog may encounter the vomit of another animal in the environment. If the dog is experiencing some level of hunger or nutritional deficiency, the scavenger instinct may drive it to consume the other animals vomit, seeing it as a potential source of food.
Understanding this instinctual component is crucial for managing such behaviors. While not inherently harmful, re-ingestion of vomit can perpetuate the cycle or mask underlying medical issues. Recognizing the drive as a natural, albeit sometimes undesirable, behavior allows owners to implement strategies like controlled feeding, higher-quality diets, and environmental management to mitigate the frequency of these occurrences. Therefore, acknowledging the connection between instinctual scavenging and the consumption of vomitus enables a proactive approach to canine care, prioritizing both physical and behavioral well-being.
2. Nutrient Reabsorption
The act of consuming regurgitated stomach contents, while often unappealing, can be driven by a physiological need to reabsorb nutrients. In cases where the digestive process is incomplete or compromised, the canine body may attempt to salvage undigested components from the expelled matter.
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Incomplete Digestion
If food is rapidly ingested or not properly broken down in the stomach due to insufficient digestive enzymes or other digestive disorders, the vomit may contain partially digested nutrients. Re-ingestion provides a second opportunity for the digestive system to extract these remaining nutrients. This can be observed in dogs that bolt their food or have underlying digestive inefficiencies. For instance, if a dog with pancreatic insufficiency vomits undigested food, it might eat the vomit to try and obtain the missed nutrients, as the pancreas is not producing enough enzymes to properly digest food the first time.
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Bile Acids and Reabsorption
Bile acids, crucial for fat digestion and absorption, are secreted into the small intestine and normally reabsorbed later in the digestive process. If vomiting occurs prematurely, these bile acids are lost. While less direct, consuming vomit could theoretically aid in recapturing some bile acids, albeit in a limited capacity, contributing to overall fat digestion efficiency. This process can be compared to enterohepatic circulation, where bile acids are continuously recycled between the liver and the small intestine. In situations where vomiting disrupts this cycle, there might be a primal drive to regain the lost bile acids for fat digestion.
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Compromised Gut Microbiome
Vomiting can disrupt the balance of the gut microbiome, potentially leading to a deficiency in certain beneficial bacteria. While vomit itself is unlikely to significantly restore the microbiome, the act of re-ingestion might, in some cases, reintroduce some partially broken down food material containing byproducts or substances that support the proliferation of gut flora. Consider a scenario where a dog experiences vomiting due to a mild bout of gastroenteritis. The upset stomach might disrupt the natural gut flora. Re-consuming the vomit could introduce some partially digested food material that acts as a substrate for the remaining or recovering beneficial bacteria. Though far from ideal, this might provide a minimal boost to the recovery process.
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Addressing Underlying Malabsorption Issues
While re-ingestion of vomit might appear to be a solution for nutrient loss, it often indicates an underlying malabsorption problem. Persistent vomiting and subsequent re-ingestion should prompt investigation into the root cause of the malabsorption, such as inflammatory bowel disease, parasitic infections, or exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. In such instances, addressing the underlying issue, rather than relying on the dog to “self-correct” through re-ingestion, is crucial for long-term health. Ignoring the underlying cause will likely lead to a vicious cycle of vomiting and re-ingestion, without resolving the core nutritional deficiency.
The tendency to eat expelled stomach contents, motivated by nutrient reabsorption, serves as a potential indicator of digestive inefficiency or underlying health concerns. Recognizing this connection allows for timely veterinary intervention and appropriate dietary adjustments to optimize nutrient uptake and overall well-being. While the act might seem unsavory, it underscores the canine body’s innate drive to maintain nutritional balance, even when the digestive system is compromised.
3. Underlying illness
The consumption of vomitus in canines can be a significant indicator of an underlying medical condition affecting the gastrointestinal tract or broader systemic health. Various illnesses can disrupt normal digestive processes, leading to vomiting, and subsequently, the animal may ingest the expelled matter. This behavior is not simply a matter of poor hygiene or taste; it can be a critical clue for diagnosing and addressing the primary health concern.
Gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), gastritis, or intestinal parasites, can all cause frequent vomiting episodes. In these cases, the dog may consume its vomit in an attempt to alleviate discomfort or reclaim lost nutrients. For instance, a dog suffering from chronic gastritis may experience irritation and inflammation of the stomach lining, leading to vomiting. The dog might then eat the vomit, possibly seeking to soothe its irritated stomach or because the vomited food is only partially digested and still perceived as a source of sustenance. Similarly, systemic diseases like kidney failure or liver disease can also manifest as vomiting due to the accumulation of toxins in the body. Again, the dog may ingest the vomit, although in these cases, the behavior is less likely to be related to nutritional need and more likely a compulsive response to the physical discomfort. Furthermore, certain neurological conditions can induce vomiting, and the subsequent consumption of vomitus may be a manifestation of abnormal behavioral patterns associated with the neurological disorder.
Identifying underlying illnesses as the cause of this behavior is of paramount importance. A veterinarian should conduct a thorough examination, including blood tests, fecal analysis, and possibly imaging studies, to determine the root cause of the vomiting. Addressing the underlying medical condition will not only resolve the vomiting but also eliminate the need for the dog to consume its vomit. Therefore, recognizing the connection between persistent vomiting, subsequent consumption, and potential underlying illnesses is vital for ensuring appropriate and timely veterinary care, ultimately improving the canine’s health and quality of life. Ignoring this connection can lead to a worsening of the primary illness and perpetuate the undesirable behavior.
4. Dietary deficiency
Dietary deficiency can contribute to the consumption of vomitus in canines. When a dog’s diet lacks essential nutrients, its body may instinctively seek alternative sources to compensate for the deficit. This behavior is driven by the biological imperative to maintain nutritional balance. Vomitus, containing partially digested food, represents a potential source of these lacking nutrients, even though the material has already been processed to some extent. If a canine diet is lacking in critical vitamins, minerals, or proteins, the dog might consume its vomit to reacquire these elements. For example, a dog fed a diet primarily composed of processed carbohydrates might lack essential amino acids. If the dog then vomits partially digested food, it may attempt to re-ingest it in an attempt to salvage the missing protein components.
A crucial factor lies in assessing the quality and completeness of the dog’s diet. Commercial dog foods vary significantly in their nutritional value, and homemade diets must be carefully formulated to meet a dog’s specific needs. A deficiency can manifest in various ways, including poor coat quality, weight loss, and decreased energy levels, in addition to the unusual behavior of consuming vomit. Consider a scenario where a dog is fed a limited-ingredient diet for allergy management, but the diet is not properly supplemented. Over time, the dog may develop a vitamin deficiency, leading to pica, which is the consumption of non-food items, or the re-ingestion of vomit. In such cases, the dog’s body is signaling a nutritional imbalance through its aberrant eating habits.
Addressing this issue necessitates a comprehensive evaluation of the canine’s diet and veterinary consultation. Switching to a nutritionally complete and balanced diet, possibly supplemented with specific vitamins or minerals, can often resolve the problem. Additionally, a veterinarian can conduct diagnostic tests to identify specific deficiencies and rule out other underlying medical conditions contributing to the behavior. Therefore, recognizing dietary deficiency as a potential driver for consuming vomitus highlights the importance of providing adequate nutrition and seeking professional guidance to ensure canine well-being. Failure to address the deficiency can perpetuate the behavior and potentially lead to more serious health complications.
5. Attention seeking
The connection between attention-seeking behavior and the consumption of vomitus, while not always the primary driver, represents a potential contributing factor in some canine cases. Recognizing this behavioral aspect alongside other physiological and environmental influences is important for a complete understanding of this phenomenon.
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Learned Association
Dogs are highly perceptive animals that quickly learn to associate specific actions with reactions from their owners. If a dog vomits and receives immediate attention, even if it is negative attention such as scolding or expressions of disgust, it may learn to repeat the behavior to elicit a similar response in the future. This is particularly true in dogs that crave interaction and lack sufficient mental stimulation. A dog that is frequently left alone or ignored may discover that vomiting and then consuming the vomit guarantees interaction, thus reinforcing the behavior. The attention, regardless of its nature, fulfills a need for social engagement.
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Reinforcement of the Behavior
Even unintentional reinforcement can solidify the connection between vomiting, eating vomit, and receiving attention. For example, if a dog vomits and the owner immediately rushes to clean it up, offering comforting words or physical affection, the dog may interpret this as a reward. This reinforces the idea that vomiting and subsequent consumption leads to a desirable outcome. Consistency is key in training and behavior modification; inconsistent reactions from the owner can confuse the dog and inadvertently strengthen the association. Thus, even sporadic instances of heightened attention following the event can perpetuate the behavior.
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Distinguishing Medical vs. Behavioral Causes
It is vital to differentiate between attention-seeking behavior and underlying medical causes. If a dog consistently consumes its vomit after receiving attention for previous episodes, a behavioral component is likely involved. However, it is imperative to first rule out any potential medical conditions that might be causing the vomiting in the first place. Diagnostic tests and veterinary examinations are essential to determine whether the behavior is primarily driven by attention-seeking or is a symptom of a more serious health issue. If medical causes are ruled out, then strategies to address attention-seeking can be implemented.
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Behavioral Modification Techniques
Addressing attention-seeking behavior requires consistent and appropriate modification techniques. Ignoring the behavior entirely, as long as medical reasons have been excluded, can be effective in extinguishing the association. Providing alternative forms of attention, such as increased playtime, training sessions, or puzzle toys, can help fulfill the dog’s need for engagement and reduce the likelihood of attention-seeking through undesirable behaviors. It is essential to focus on positive reinforcement, rewarding the dog for good behavior and redirecting its attention away from the vomit. Consulting with a professional dog trainer or behaviorist can provide tailored strategies for managing this specific behavioral issue.
The consumption of vomitus as an attention-seeking behavior underscores the complex interplay between a dog’s physical and emotional needs. By recognizing the potential for learned associations and addressing underlying behavioral motivations, owners can implement appropriate strategies to reduce the occurrence of this undesirable behavior, while prioritizing the canine’s overall well-being.
6. Learned behavior
The consumption of vomitus, while often rooted in instinct or physiological need, can also develop as a learned behavior in canines. This aspect highlights the influence of environmental factors and repeated experiences in shaping a dog’s actions.
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Observational Learning
Dogs, particularly puppies, learn by observing the behaviors of other dogs, especially their mothers or pack members. If a puppy witnesses its mother consuming vomit, it may mimic this behavior, particularly if the mother displays no negative reaction. This observational learning can establish a precedent for the puppy to engage in the same behavior, even if the initial stimulus (e.g., hunger) is not present. For example, a puppy raised in a kennel where other dogs routinely consume their vomit may adopt this behavior, perceiving it as normal or acceptable. This behavior is more prone to appear within confined environments.
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Accidental Reinforcement
Accidental reinforcement occurs when a dog performs an action and receives a reward, whether intentional or unintentional, which strengthens the likelihood of repeating the action. If a dog vomits and then eats the vomit, and the owner responds by giving the dog extra attention, even negative attention such as scolding, the dog may interpret this as a form of reward. This is especially true for dogs that crave attention and lack adequate mental stimulation. Consider a dog that is frequently left alone. It may learn that vomiting and consuming the vomit garners attention from its owner, thereby inadvertently reinforcing the behavior. While the owner may be attempting to discourage the behavior, the act of providing attention, regardless of its form, strengthens the association.
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Habituation
Habituation is the process by which an animal becomes accustomed to a stimulus, leading to a decreased response over time. If a dog repeatedly vomits and then eats the vomit without any negative consequences, it may become habituated to the sensation and the act itself. This can occur if the underlying cause of the vomiting, such as dietary indiscretion or mild motion sickness, is not addressed. Over time, the act of consuming vomit becomes routine, and the dog may continue to do so even when the initial stimulus is no longer present. For example, a dog that experiences occasional bouts of vomiting due to eating garbage may become habituated to the taste and texture of its vomit, making it more likely to consume it in the future, even if the garbage consumption is reduced.
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Environmental Cues
Environmental cues, such as specific locations or times of day, can also trigger learned behavior. If a dog consistently vomits and consumes the vomit in a particular area of the house, that location may become associated with the behavior. Similarly, if the dog typically vomits and eats the vomit after meals, the act of eating may serve as a cue to trigger the behavior. These environmental cues can create a conditioned response, making it more likely that the dog will repeat the behavior whenever it encounters the same cues. For instance, a dog that always vomits and consumes its vomit in the backyard after eating may begin to associate the backyard with this behavior, leading it to vomit and consume vomit whenever it is in that location.
These aspects of learned behavior highlight the plasticity of canine behavior and the influence of environmental factors on the consumption of vomitus. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing effective strategies to modify the behavior and prevent its recurrence. By addressing the underlying causes of the vomiting, managing environmental cues, and avoiding accidental reinforcement, owners can interrupt the learned behavior and promote healthier eating habits in their dogs.
7. Parasitic infection
Parasitic infections can indirectly contribute to the canine habit of consuming vomitus. While not a direct cause, certain parasitic infestations can disrupt digestive processes and nutrient absorption, leading to physiological responses that may prompt a dog to re-ingest expelled stomach contents.
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Intestinal Malabsorption
Intestinal parasites, such as roundworms, hookworms, and whipworms, reside in the small intestine and interfere with nutrient absorption. These parasites damage the intestinal lining, reducing its capacity to effectively absorb nutrients from digested food. This malabsorption can lead to nutritional deficiencies, prompting the dog to seek alternative sources of nutrients, including its own vomitus. For example, a dog heavily infested with hookworms may experience significant blood loss and protein malabsorption. Consequently, the dog may consume its vomit in an attempt to recover some of the lost nutrients, even though the vomitus itself may contain parasitic larvae or eggs, perpetuating the infection cycle.
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Gastrointestinal Upset and Vomiting
Some parasitic infections cause direct irritation and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in vomiting. Parasites like Giardia and Coccidia can trigger inflammation and disrupt the normal gut flora, leading to vomiting and diarrhea. The dog, experiencing discomfort and potentially nutritional deficiencies due to the parasitic infection, might consume its vomit in an attempt to soothe its stomach or recover lost nutrients. This act can further exacerbate the parasitic infection if the vomitus contains parasite eggs or cysts. Consider a puppy infected with Giardia, which causes inflammation and irritation of the intestines. The puppy may vomit and then re-ingest the vomit, potentially reintroducing the Giardia cysts and prolonging the infection.
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Compromised Immune System
Chronic parasitic infections can weaken a dog’s immune system, making it more susceptible to other infections and digestive disorders. A compromised immune system can hinder the body’s ability to effectively absorb nutrients and maintain a healthy gut microbiome, contributing to vomiting. The dog may then consume its vomit in a misguided attempt to bolster its nutritional intake. For instance, a dog with a long-standing tapeworm infestation may experience immune suppression, making it more vulnerable to secondary infections. This weakened state can contribute to digestive upset and vomiting, prompting the dog to consume its vomit. However, the act will not address the underlying problem, which requires veterinary intervention and antiparasitic treatment.
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Altered Gut Microbiome
Parasitic infections can significantly alter the balance of the gut microbiome, disrupting the population of beneficial bacteria and promoting the growth of harmful organisms. This imbalance can lead to digestive dysfunction, including vomiting and malabsorption. The dog, experiencing these disruptions, might consume its vomit in an instinctive attempt to restore balance or reclaim lost nutrients. However, this act can further disrupt the gut microbiome by reintroducing parasitic organisms and harmful bacteria. For example, a dog with a whipworm infection may experience significant changes in its gut microbiome, leading to diarrhea and vomiting. The dog may then eat its vomit, inadvertently reintroducing whipworm eggs and further disrupting the gut flora.
In conclusion, parasitic infections, while not a direct cause, can indirectly contribute to the consumption of vomitus by disrupting digestion, causing malabsorption, and triggering gastrointestinal upset. Addressing parasitic infections through appropriate veterinary treatment and preventative measures is crucial for maintaining canine health and preventing this undesirable behavior. Furthermore, diagnosing and treating parasitic infections is crucial for preventing nutritional deficiencies and breaking the cycle of vomiting and consumption.
8. Anxiety/Stress
Anxiety and stress can manifest in various behavioral changes in canines, and the consumption of vomitus represents one such manifestation. Psychological distress can disrupt normal digestive function, leading to emesis, which the animal may then consume as a coping mechanism or a displacement activity. The act is not necessarily driven by hunger or nutritional need, but rather by an attempt to alleviate or redirect the energy associated with the anxiety or stress. Instances of separation anxiety, where the dog experiences distress when left alone, can trigger vomiting, followed by the consumption of the expelled matter. The behavior, in these cases, serves as a form of self-soothing or a way to expend nervous energy. Similarly, dogs subjected to chronic stress, such as those living in unstable environments or experiencing frequent loud noises, may develop a pattern of vomiting and consuming the vomitus as a stress-related response. Recognizing anxiety and stress as potential drivers of this behavior is essential for addressing the underlying emotional issues.
Identifying the sources of anxiety and stress is paramount in managing this behavior. Environmental stressors, such as changes in routine, new pets or family members, or construction noise, can all contribute to canine anxiety. Behavioral interventions, such as desensitization and counterconditioning, can help the dog gradually adapt to these stressors and reduce the likelihood of stress-induced vomiting. Providing a safe and predictable environment, coupled with positive reinforcement training, can promote a sense of security and reduce anxiety levels. For example, creating a designated “safe space” where the dog can retreat during stressful situations, such as thunderstorms or fireworks, can significantly reduce anxiety-related vomiting. In cases of severe anxiety, pharmacological interventions, prescribed by a veterinarian, may be necessary to help manage the animal’s emotional state. These medications can help reduce anxiety levels, allowing the dog to better cope with stressors and reduce the likelihood of stress-related behaviors.
The understanding that anxiety and stress can contribute to the consumption of vomitus highlights the importance of addressing the emotional well-being of canines. While the behavior itself may seem unhygienic or repulsive, it is often a symptom of a deeper emotional issue. By identifying and managing the sources of anxiety and stress, providing a supportive environment, and utilizing appropriate behavioral and pharmacological interventions, owners can effectively address this behavior and improve the overall quality of life for their canine companions. Failure to address the underlying anxiety or stress can perpetuate the behavior and potentially lead to other stress-related health problems. Therefore, recognizing the link between emotional distress and this behavior is crucial for providing comprehensive and compassionate care.
Frequently Asked Questions
This section addresses common inquiries regarding the canine behavior of consuming their own vomitus, providing factual information to enhance understanding of this often-misunderstood act.
Question 1: Is the consumption of regurgitated stomach contents by canines always indicative of a medical problem?
Not necessarily. While this behavior can signal underlying health issues such as digestive disorders or nutrient deficiencies, it can also stem from instinctual scavenging behavior or learned habits. A comprehensive veterinary examination is recommended to determine the root cause.
Question 2: Does re-ingestion of vomitus provide any nutritional benefit to the canine?
Potentially, yes. If the vomitus contains partially digested food, the canine body may attempt to reabsorb remaining nutrients. However, this is not a reliable or healthy method of obtaining nutrition, and addressing the underlying cause of the vomiting is crucial.
Question 3: Can a canine acquire parasites from eating its own vomitus?
Yes, if the initial vomiting episode was caused by a parasitic infection, the vomitus may contain parasite eggs or larvae. Consuming the vomitus can then perpetuate the parasitic cycle, leading to re-infection.
Question 4: How can this behavior be discouraged?
Discouraging this behavior requires identifying the underlying cause. If it is medically related, treatment is necessary. If it is behavioral, techniques such as positive reinforcement training, environmental management, and addressing any anxiety or stress triggers can be effective. Consultation with a professional dog trainer or behaviorist is advisable.
Question 5: Is there a breed predisposition for this behavior?
There is no specific breed predisposition; however, certain breeds prone to digestive sensitivities or anxiety may exhibit this behavior more frequently. Individual temperament and environmental factors play a more significant role than breed alone.
Question 6: At what point should veterinary intervention be sought?
Veterinary intervention is recommended if the vomiting is frequent, persistent, or accompanied by other symptoms such as lethargy, loss of appetite, weight loss, or changes in stool. Prompt veterinary care is crucial to diagnose and address any underlying medical conditions.
Key takeaway: The consumption of vomitus is a multifaceted behavior with potential roots in instinct, health, and environment. Understanding these factors is crucial for effective management and ensuring canine well-being.
The following section will discuss preventative measures to mitigate this canine behavior.
Preventative Measures to Mitigate Vomitus Consumption
Implementing proactive strategies can significantly reduce the likelihood of canines consuming their own vomitus. Addressing both potential medical and behavioral factors is critical for effective prevention.
Tip 1: Ensure a Balanced and Appropriate Diet: Feeding a high-quality, nutritionally complete diet appropriate for the canine’s age, breed, and activity level is essential. Avoid sudden dietary changes, as these can disrupt the digestive system and lead to vomiting. Consult with a veterinarian to determine the most suitable diet.
Tip 2: Implement Slow Feeding Techniques: Rapid eating can lead to regurgitation. Utilize slow-feeding bowls, puzzle feeders, or divide meals into smaller, more frequent portions to slow down consumption and promote proper digestion.
Tip 3: Manage Environmental Stressors: Minimize exposure to stressful situations that trigger anxiety. Provide a safe and comfortable environment, establish a consistent routine, and use calming aids if necessary. Consider consulting a veterinary behaviorist for persistent anxiety issues.
Tip 4: Maintain a Clean Living Environment: Regularly clean the canine’s living area to remove potential sources of gastrointestinal upset, such as discarded food scraps or garbage. Promptly clean up any instances of vomiting to prevent the canine from having the opportunity to consume it.
Tip 5: Regular Veterinary Check-ups: Schedule routine veterinary examinations to detect and address any underlying medical conditions that may contribute to vomiting. Early detection and treatment can prevent the behavior before it becomes habitual.
Tip 6: Consistent Training and Supervision: Teach the canine a “leave it” command to discourage the consumption of undesirable items, including vomitus. Supervise the canine, especially after meals, to prevent it from accessing and consuming any expelled stomach contents.
Tip 7: Parasite Prevention and Control: Maintain a consistent parasite prevention program, as internal parasites can cause digestive upset and nutrient malabsorption. Regular fecal examinations and appropriate deworming medications are essential.
Implementing these preventative measures can minimize the occurrence of canines consuming their own vomitus, promoting better digestive health and overall well-being. Consistent application of these strategies is crucial for long-term success.
The subsequent section presents a concluding summary to encapsulate the key insights regarding this canine behavior.
Conclusion
The exploration of why do dogs eat their own vomit reveals a complex interplay of instinctual drives, potential medical underpinnings, and behavioral influences. This behavior, while often disconcerting to observers, is driven by factors ranging from scavenging instincts honed over millennia to attempts to recapture lost nutrients or mitigate underlying anxiety. Understanding the multi-faceted nature of this behavior necessitates careful consideration of the individual canine’s health, environment, and learned responses.
Addressing this behavior effectively demands a comprehensive approach, encompassing veterinary assessment, dietary management, and, where appropriate, behavioral modification. Recognizing that this action may be a symptom of a deeper issue, prompt investigation and intervention are essential to ensuring the canine’s well-being. Continued research into canine behavior and digestive health will further refine our understanding and enable more targeted strategies for prevention and management. Prioritizing proactive care and informed decision-making remains paramount in promoting the health and welfare of canine companions.
